Religion plays a significant role in defining the lives of Muslims in China. Through a close association with Islam, Muslims in China are not only able to develop spiritual awareness but also a sense of community with fellow religious members. The membership in a religious group in China is an expression of an individual’s identity within the community. The lives of Muslims in China, have been shaped according to the patterns of emergence of various Islamic sects and orders. One of the most influential institutions that lead to the transmission as well as the preservation of Islam in China is Sufism. Sufism in China emerged as a new set of techniques with a revitalized institutional framework. Sufism provided a revolutionary infrastructure that acted as a mean for religious fulfillment as well as an agent for social transformation for Muslims in China. Sufism has been very influential and popular in China due to its ability to provide a mystical and spiritually enlightened perspective to Islam, in comparison to the traditional framework based on scriptures and rituals. A set of distinctive Sufi orders have allowed Islam in China to develop into a unique tradition, one that is distinctive from the rest of the Islamic world. The development of Islam in China did not occur in a sociopolitical vacuum; therefore the historical milieu of the time is of great significance. Similarly, the emergence of Sufism in China occurred in the midst of the existing Islamic tradition and the Chinese culture surrounding it. An insight into the historical development and analysis of the various Sufi orders that emerged in China can allow one to recognize the significance of Sufism in developing an Islamic tradition that is unique to China.
It is believed that Sufism has the ability to touch at a deeper spiritual level by going beyond the limits of the world. A famous poem by Rumi, expands on this concept of attaining spirituality distinct from traditional Islamic teachings:
In the midst of social, political and economic transitions, there was a return to religion by the people in China. The rediscovering of a religious dimension allowed a new perspective to group and personal identity within the socio-political infrastructure of the time. This close interaction with religion may be the consequence of a number of interrelated factors. An analysis of these factors can allow an understand how Sufism was able to sustain itself through a history of persecution in China as well as maintain its popularity amongst the Muslim followers in China until now.
First, an unsatisfactory modernization may be the reason why people resorted to religion to fill the void. Throughout recent history, specifically during the Cultural Revolution China implemented various schemes to modernize the country and displace the ‘backward’ religious ideas. However, the modernization efforts were successful in some areas and completely disastrous in others. The modernization efforts in Northwest China meant stricter governmental policies to control religious and social activities. These efforts were unsatisfactory in the religious dimension, as many local activities such as mosques reconstructions and communal religious traditions were undermined by the new policies. These policies had the aim of regulating and controlling the lives of the local population. The Xian Muslim Quarters provides an example of the ulterior motives of the government behind the urban renewal projects:
It is believed that Sufism has the ability to touch at a deeper spiritual level by going beyond the limits of the world. A famous poem by Rumi, expands on this concept of attaining spirituality distinct from traditional Islamic teachings:
In the midst of social, political and economic transitions, there was a return to religion by the people in China. The rediscovering of a religious dimension allowed a new perspective to group and personal identity within the socio-political infrastructure of the time. This close interaction with religion may be the consequence of a number of interrelated factors. An analysis of these factors can allow an understand how Sufism was able to sustain itself through a history of persecution in China as well as maintain its popularity amongst the Muslim followers in China until now.
First, an unsatisfactory modernization may be the reason why people resorted to religion to fill the void. Throughout recent history, specifically during the Cultural Revolution China implemented various schemes to modernize the country and displace the ‘backward’ religious ideas. However, the modernization efforts were successful in some areas and completely disastrous in others. The modernization efforts in Northwest China meant stricter governmental policies to control religious and social activities. These efforts were unsatisfactory in the religious dimension, as many local activities such as mosques reconstructions and communal religious traditions were undermined by the new policies. These policies had the aim of regulating and controlling the lives of the local population. The Xian Muslim Quarters provides an example of the ulterior motives of the government behind the urban renewal projects:
‘Through its re-housing project, the government determined who lived together, whether or not families or extended families were co-resident, and whether neighbors remained neighbors. ..State control over religious activity would also increase because the reconstruction affected who would reside near the mosque, who lived further away, and where the mosques were relative to worshipers.’ (Gillette, 2000: 65)
Hence, these unsatisfactory methods of modernization undermined the traditional belief system and lifestyle of the local population. This may have been one of the most influential factors that caused people to turn to religion to develop a revitalized sense of community. Sufism provided a mean of communal and social interaction and thus was a popular choice amongst Muslim followers. In comparison to the traditional doctrinal and ritualistic practices, Sufism offered a different perspective to Islam. This new perspective aimed to connect at a spiritual and social level instead of a traditional Islamic Shariah system; focusing entirely on Islamic law and textual interpretations.
Second, another reason that Muslims in China may have resorted on Sufism may be due to their disillusionment with secular nationalism. The People Republic of China is a communist country that although has Buddhism as a popular religion, the government doesn’t officially
promote any religion at a national level. Under the communist code, religion characterizes old beliefs and has to be replaced to win the present race of capitalism. Thus, secularism in China promotes no interaction between the state and the religion. Although, this secular framework develops a successful framework for the state, however it ignores the traditions and beliefs of people. Hence, in order to develop an individualistic sense of nationality within the larger governmental framework, there is a wave of change amongst the people; a return back to religion. For the Muslims in China, Sufism developed a religious system that fit into the secular national framework, but at the same time allowed people to meet their religious and social needs. Sufism thus allowed a sense of belonging to the Muslims in China, that the government was unable to provide due to its secular ideals. In this manner, Sufism stretched beyond the limits of a religious system, instead offered a system that allowed religious and social transformation to meet the needs of its followers.
Third, political oppression and ‘incomplete’ formation of national identity of Chinese Muslims may be another significant reason that instigated Chinese Muslims to find a safe haven in the teachings and practices of Sufism. The political oppression of Chinese Muslims can be interpreted in a number of ways. Firstly, the creation of national minorities with the emergence of nation-states, was on its own a form of oppression. This grouping of people under a collective identity eliminated their distinguishing and unique local and cultural beliefs and traditions. For example, under a national minority category the Uyghurs are identified as a group of Muslim Chinese who trace their heritage back to Persian-speaking
regions of Central Asia. This collective identity of Uyghurs ignores their local identities in different regions in China where each groups has its distinct local allegiances and lifestyles. Also, another form of political oppression can be identified by the close governmental control over social and religious practices of the Muslims in China. These limitations on the daily lives of Chinese Muslims sometimes prevent them to practice their basic human rights such as freedom of expression and speech. Furthermore, due to various governmental schemes of assimilating and acculturating the Chinese Muslims to a central Chinese Han identity, led to an incomplete identity formation for the Muslim Chinese. In the midst of these schemes implemented by the government, Muslims in China are left halfway between a Chinese identity and their socio-religious identity as Hui/Uyghur Muslims. One of the most significant elements of Sufism was to develop a sense of community amongst the Muslims to counter the governmental oppression and schemes of fragmenting their identity. Also, Sufism allowed Muslims in China to develop the missing identity that they had been searching for and/or had been confused about. Through the establishment of a social network and connection at a spiritual level, Sufism allowed Muslims in China to maintain their unique cultural and religious identity.
Fourthly, erosion of traditional morality and values may have been another important factor for the stimulating an attraction amongst Chinese Muslims towards the pathways promoted by Sufism. The Peoples Republic of China in its efforts to establish a structure of secular
socialism and secular capitalism, undermined the traditional values of the people. With the categorization of people under national minorities further ignored their allegiances to traditional institutions. However, these motives of the government led to opposite results than those aimed by the government. Instead of complete erosion of the traditional values and institutions, it led to an increasing the need of a community amongst the people. People who shared common characteristics bonded in a new manner to protect and preserve their traditional culture and belief system. For Muslims in China, Sufism was a mean to maintain their unique identity as Muslims within the majority Chinese social structure. Various Sufi intellectuals used literature to connect themes of Chinese culture with the Islamic tradition. By relating Chinese ideas with Sufism provided a mean for the Sufis to reach people at a deeper level. Wang Tai-yu used various comparative means between Buddhism and Islam to deliver the unique Sufi ideas, he mentions:
Second, another reason that Muslims in China may have resorted on Sufism may be due to their disillusionment with secular nationalism. The People Republic of China is a communist country that although has Buddhism as a popular religion, the government doesn’t officially
promote any religion at a national level. Under the communist code, religion characterizes old beliefs and has to be replaced to win the present race of capitalism. Thus, secularism in China promotes no interaction between the state and the religion. Although, this secular framework develops a successful framework for the state, however it ignores the traditions and beliefs of people. Hence, in order to develop an individualistic sense of nationality within the larger governmental framework, there is a wave of change amongst the people; a return back to religion. For the Muslims in China, Sufism developed a religious system that fit into the secular national framework, but at the same time allowed people to meet their religious and social needs. Sufism thus allowed a sense of belonging to the Muslims in China, that the government was unable to provide due to its secular ideals. In this manner, Sufism stretched beyond the limits of a religious system, instead offered a system that allowed religious and social transformation to meet the needs of its followers.Third, political oppression and ‘incomplete’ formation of national identity of Chinese Muslims may be another significant reason that instigated Chinese Muslims to find a safe haven in the teachings and practices of Sufism. The political oppression of Chinese Muslims can be interpreted in a number of ways. Firstly, the creation of national minorities with the emergence of nation-states, was on its own a form of oppression. This grouping of people under a collective identity eliminated their distinguishing and unique local and cultural beliefs and traditions. For example, under a national minority category the Uyghurs are identified as a group of Muslim Chinese who trace their heritage back to Persian-speaking
regions of Central Asia. This collective identity of Uyghurs ignores their local identities in different regions in China where each groups has its distinct local allegiances and lifestyles. Also, another form of political oppression can be identified by the close governmental control over social and religious practices of the Muslims in China. These limitations on the daily lives of Chinese Muslims sometimes prevent them to practice their basic human rights such as freedom of expression and speech. Furthermore, due to various governmental schemes of assimilating and acculturating the Chinese Muslims to a central Chinese Han identity, led to an incomplete identity formation for the Muslim Chinese. In the midst of these schemes implemented by the government, Muslims in China are left halfway between a Chinese identity and their socio-religious identity as Hui/Uyghur Muslims. One of the most significant elements of Sufism was to develop a sense of community amongst the Muslims to counter the governmental oppression and schemes of fragmenting their identity. Also, Sufism allowed Muslims in China to develop the missing identity that they had been searching for and/or had been confused about. Through the establishment of a social network and connection at a spiritual level, Sufism allowed Muslims in China to maintain their unique cultural and religious identity.Fourthly, erosion of traditional morality and values may have been another important factor for the stimulating an attraction amongst Chinese Muslims towards the pathways promoted by Sufism. The Peoples Republic of China in its efforts to establish a structure of secular
socialism and secular capitalism, undermined the traditional values of the people. With the categorization of people under national minorities further ignored their allegiances to traditional institutions. However, these motives of the government led to opposite results than those aimed by the government. Instead of complete erosion of the traditional values and institutions, it led to an increasing the need of a community amongst the people. People who shared common characteristics bonded in a new manner to protect and preserve their traditional culture and belief system. For Muslims in China, Sufism was a mean to maintain their unique identity as Muslims within the majority Chinese social structure. Various Sufi intellectuals used literature to connect themes of Chinese culture with the Islamic tradition. By relating Chinese ideas with Sufism provided a mean for the Sufis to reach people at a deeper level. Wang Tai-yu used various comparative means between Buddhism and Islam to deliver the unique Sufi ideas, he mentions:‘The heavenly immortals and the spirits and demons come forth afterwards. Why? Because human beings are the original taproot of yin and yang. Coming forth from the formless, they are prior to all beings. Opening up in the after-heaven, they comprehensively embrace the beginning and end of all beings’ (Murata, 2000: 94)
Sufism preserved the traditional Islamic ideals through its reliance on doctrine and rituals, however provided a reformed institution that also connected with individuals at a social level. Thus, through its unique framework, Sufism not only preserved the traditional morals and values of Muslims in China but ensured a system that would allow it to fit within the Chinese infrastructure. These elements of Sufism may be the reason why it has been successful in preserving Islam and sustaining it through a history of oppression and persecution in China.
Finally, widespread socio-economic grievances may have also contributed in instigating a reliance on Sufism by the Muslims in China. For example, the unequal allocation of job-opportunities by the government and undermining of traditional value system caused alienation among ordinary people. This alienation further stimulated a search for identity
that would allow the individual to develop a sense of purpose and meaning in life. Sufism established a framework that provided solutions for these social and economic issues within the Muslim community. A historical analysis of Sufism in China further provides information regarding its involvement beyond the religious sphere. In the early years of Sufism’s emergence in China, it maintained a deep interaction with the realm of trading. Sufism provided lodges and hostels for the traders to take a resort in, as they traveled on their trade routes. This provides evidence that Sufism established itself not as a mere religious movement but rather aimed to be a movement for social transformation as well. Membership within the Sufi religious community also allowed individuals to develop a socially and politically powerful identity. This gave Muslims in China the opportunities for leadership within their communities as well as equal participation within the social and political framework of the community. Thus, the attraction to Sufism by Muslims in China was not merely based on its unique religious perspective. Rather, it was also a rational utilization of these religious beliefs by the Muslim Chinese in pursuit of their socio-political goals.
Thus, Sufism with its revitalized religious framework provided a unique perspective to the traditional Islamic teachings and practices. This reformative infrastructure aimed to promote a social coherence amongst the Muslims in China to not only develop a sense of a unique individual identity but also a collective Muslim community. Sufism offered a variety of orders that provided distinct pathways for religious and social transformation of the Muslim community. These unique characteristics of developing a social infrastructure for the followers allowed the Muslims in China to renegotiate their allegiances to the traditional institutions. Through these elements, Sufism not only preserved Islam through a long history of persecution within China but continues to maintain its significance within the region.
Finally, widespread socio-economic grievances may have also contributed in instigating a reliance on Sufism by the Muslims in China. For example, the unequal allocation of job-opportunities by the government and undermining of traditional value system caused alienation among ordinary people. This alienation further stimulated a search for identity
that would allow the individual to develop a sense of purpose and meaning in life. Sufism established a framework that provided solutions for these social and economic issues within the Muslim community. A historical analysis of Sufism in China further provides information regarding its involvement beyond the religious sphere. In the early years of Sufism’s emergence in China, it maintained a deep interaction with the realm of trading. Sufism provided lodges and hostels for the traders to take a resort in, as they traveled on their trade routes. This provides evidence that Sufism established itself not as a mere religious movement but rather aimed to be a movement for social transformation as well. Membership within the Sufi religious community also allowed individuals to develop a socially and politically powerful identity. This gave Muslims in China the opportunities for leadership within their communities as well as equal participation within the social and political framework of the community. Thus, the attraction to Sufism by Muslims in China was not merely based on its unique religious perspective. Rather, it was also a rational utilization of these religious beliefs by the Muslim Chinese in pursuit of their socio-political goals.Thus, Sufism with its revitalized religious framework provided a unique perspective to the traditional Islamic teachings and practices. This reformative infrastructure aimed to promote a social coherence amongst the Muslims in China to not only develop a sense of a unique individual identity but also a collective Muslim community. Sufism offered a variety of orders that provided distinct pathways for religious and social transformation of the Muslim community. These unique characteristics of developing a social infrastructure for the followers allowed the Muslims in China to renegotiate their allegiances to the traditional institutions. Through these elements, Sufism not only preserved Islam through a long history of persecution within China but continues to maintain its significance within the region.
