Sufi Pathways

Although, one of Islam's fundamental principles is to promote harmony in all aspects of life including within the Islamic community referred to as Ummah. However, Islam in China as well as around the world tends to branch itself into sects and smaller communities. This fragmentation is dependent on the unique interpretations of the doctrines or religious practices. An analysis of Islam in China allows one to recognize that emergence of these various sects is highly dependent on the historical socio-political milieu. Western academics have recently started exploring the rich historical background of Sufism in China. Hence, this limited research in the area led to classification of Sufism with other sects that were separate from Gedimu (orthodox Islamic tradition) and known as New Teachings or xinjao (Dillon, 1999: 107). Islam has faced centuries of repression in China, and Sufism has been very significant in sustaining Islam throughout the years. According to Jonathan Lipman:

‘The arrival of Sufi orders provided a means of mobilization, a network of solidarity that had never been present among Chinese Muslims before’ (Dillon, 1999: 64)

The strongest presence of Sufism in China is in Qinghai, Ningxia, and Gansu (Dillon, 1999: 106). These Sufi brotherhoods are referred to as menhuan which corresponds to silsila in Arabic which is a chain of hereditary shaykhs that pass on the blessings to their desciples. Jonathan Lipman explains:

‘As a unique blend of Sufi and Chinese forms, the menhuan combined the appeal of prophetic descent with Chinese notion of family structure and socioeconomic competition. Deriving legitimacy from two of the worlds that met on this frontier, the menhuan proved to be a powerful new instrument of local elite control’ (Lipman, 1997: 71)

There have been four prominent Sufi orders in China, these are Khuffiyya, Jahriyya, Qadariyya and the Kubrawiyya. Similar to the Gedimu, the Sufi orders regard themselves as orthodox Sunnis and trace their lineage back to the Caliphs of early Islamic tradition. Sufism maintained the unique characteristics of Islam in China during the various periods of repression. Islam was revived and strengthened by these Sufi orders as they prevented Islam and the Muslims community from being overshadowed and absorbed into the Chinese culture and practices. Due to its mystic aspects, Sufism is unique in exploring a new dimension of Islam. The Sufi mystical tradition allows a spiritual awakening, one that aims for a deeper meaning than the orthodox practices and rituals.

A historical analysis of Sufism can allow an insight to the origins of this religious phenomenon that influenced Islam around the world. It emerged during the Abbasid period which is recognized as the Golden Age for arts and culture. During this period, aspiring Sufis and poets emerged from Central Asia, the region that the Chinese Muslims trace their roots to. Furthermore, Sufism developed under the Turkish as they invaded the Eastern parts of the Islamic world. During this period, an Iranian religious preacher named Kazaruni established the system of lodges (Dillon, 1999: 107). These lodges were attached to the mosques and provided assistance and shelter to travelers. This concept of lodges later became defined as one of the many Sufi tariqas or paths.

To define a central aim to Sufism is close to impossible due to its transcendental and spiritual ideas. J.T Trimingham provides an explanation regarding the significance of Sufi orders:

‘Sufism embraces those tendencies in Islam which aim at direct communion between God and man. It is a sphere of spiritual experience which runs parallel to the main stream of Islamic consciousness deriving from the prophetic revelation and comprehended within the Sharia and theology’ (Trimingham, 1971: 55)

Sufi orders are organized in tariqa or paths that are undertaken by the Sufis. Overtime, tariqa became associated to another meaning; Sufi brotherhoods that were led by spiritual masters. These spiritual masters were considered enlightened and could initiate their disciples and grant them with blessings to follow the Sufi pathway. These Sufi orders had hierarchical organization with the masters on the top who passed on the teachings to their disciples. This organization became established as silsila which is a hereditary spiritual lineage of teachers or masters. Masters could project their hereditary associations to other eminent teachers from the past and were able to develop authority over the disciples. The communal practices have always been at the heart of the Sufi tradition. There were meetings at lodges were they read the Quran, studied religious commentaries, and performed various rituals depending on the rules of the specific order. Over time, these lodges further developed into networks of hostels. These hostels provided facilities and services to the traders similar to lodges, however at a larger scale. These hostels were highly convenient for traders due to their availability around trade routes. In comparison, Chinese policies were against commerce and related to hostels as serving more worldly purposes rather than their original aims of spiritual services.

‘Muslim merchants coming to China to trade could as they wished find accommodation with Muslim merchant families settled there or hotels where services were most comprehensive. The guests’ wealth and property were therefore appropriately stored. They even selected maids and concubines for the guests and rooms where they could live together.’ (Dillon, 1999: 110)

Thus, Sufism in China provided a unique social network that went beyond just fulfilling the spiritual and religious needs of the followers. An insight into the most prominent Sufi orders can provide a perspective to how Sufism became popular amongst the Muslims in China and maintained its popularity until now.